Solar panel operation

A solar panel is a module that uses the energy of solar radiation. Usually refers to the devices to produce hot water (usually domestic) and photovoltaic panels used to generate electricity.

Photovoltaic panels are composed of many cells (called photovoltaic cells) that capture the light radiation (photons from solar radiation). These photons impacting on the cell surface and there are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon, freeing electrons hitting the atoms to which they belonged, and the electrons begin to move through the material producing electricity in the form of low voltage DC. The structure consists of solar panels, among other things, for: a solar generator, a battery, a charge controller and inverter (optional). The batteries are storing the energy produced by the generator and gives us the possibility to use that stored energy in the days where there is a very low radiation or no sun is present. The regulator, as its name implies, is responsible for avoid overloading or excessive discharge in the tank, whichever is irreversible damage would occur. As the electric current type provided by solar panels is direct current, often using an inverter and / or power converter to convert direct current into alternating current, which is what we normally use in our homes, jobs and shops.

Although each solar cell provides a relatively small amount of energy, many of them spread over a large area (forming the solar panel) can provide enough energy to be useful. These cells are connected together as a series circuit in order to increase the output voltage of electricity, while several networks are connected parallel to increase power generation capacity that can provide the panel. To get the most amount of power the solar cells should aim at the sun.

In 2005 the biggest problem with solar panels was the cost, which has been down to 3 or $ 4 per watt. The price of silicon used for most panels is now tending to rise. This has led manufacturers to start using other materials and thinner silicon panels to lower production costs. Due to economies of scale, solar panels are less expensive as they are used and manufactured more. As production increases prices continue to fall in coming years.

One of the main uses is known to heat the water in the panels have a receiving plate and tubes circulating the liquid attached to it. The receiver (usually coated with a black selective coating) ensures the transformation of solar radiation into heat, while the liquid that circulates through the pipes carries heat to where it can be used or stored. The heated liquid is pumped to a power apparatus exchanger (a coil inside the storage compartment and an external device) where it leaves the heat and then circulates back to the panel to be reheated.

Theory and Construction

Crystalline silicon and gallium arsenide are typical choices of materials for making solar cells. The crystals of gallium arsenide are created especially for photovoltaic use, while silicon crystals are available in standard ingots cheaper produced mainly for consumption in the microelectronics industry. Polycrystalline silicon has lower conversion efficiency but also lower cost so that ultimately their profitability is warranted.

When exposed to direct sunlight, a cell of 6 cm diameter silicon can produce a current of about 0.5 amps at 0.5 volts (depending on brightness and efficiency of solar cell).

Crystalline ingots are sliced ​​into thin discs as a wafer, polished to remove damage caused by the cut. Dopants are introduced (impurities added to modify the conductive properties) within the wafers, and metallic conductors are deposited on each surface: a thin grid on the side where da sunlight and usually a flat blade on the other. Solar panels are built with these cells cut into appropriate. To protect the front surface damage caused by radiation or by the use of these links were in a glass cover and are grounded on a substrate (which may be a rigid panel or a soft blanket). Electrical connections are made in series-parallel to determine the total output voltage. The foundation and the substrate must be thermally conductive, since the cells are heated by absorbing infrared energy that is converted into electricity. Since cell heating reduces the operating efficiency it is desirable to minimize it. The resulting assemblies are called solar panels or solar groups.

If one quarter of pavements and buildings of the cities were converted into solar panels, these would provide enough energy for the city.

Warranty Certificate TSKAN

MANUFACTURER'S WARRANTY CERTIFICATE FOR BRAND TSKAN PV modules

1) TSKAN, Ltd., manufacturer of photovoltaic modules, established in the C / THE NAVE 12 P3 Gravil NORTH INDUSTRIAL POLYGON ARINAGA Y (Gran Canaria), guarantees that its products meet the technical specifications and quality standards they are application, and are new products.

TSKAN guarantee their quality and performance of photovoltaic modules under the terms and conditions set forth below:

1.a) 5 year warranty against defects in materials or workmanship TSKAN, Ltd. warrants for a period of 5 years starting from the date of delivery to the original purchaser that its Photovoltaic modules are free from defects in materials (1) or workmanship that would prevent normal operation in the right conditions for use, installation and maintenance.

(1) Excluding interconnection cables, etc. that are an intrinsic element of the Module. Should TSKAN, upon request, provide the Interconnection Module with cables, the warranty period for this additional element will be five years from the date of delivery to the first purchaser, or 5 years from the delivery date (Ex - Factory TSKAN).

If at any time during the validity period of this warranty, Photovoltaic Module malfunction acquired as a result of the appearance of defects in materials or workmanship, TSKAN, SL undertakes, depending on the defect to submit, replace (2) or repair (2) Module defective or refund the amount received from the customer at the time of purchase.

(2) The replacement of modules restart the warranty period throughout the initial extension, while repairing an interruption of the guarantee period which will run from the time of delivery of the repaired module.

1b) 10, 20 and 25 years power warranty

TSKAN, SL guarantees, for the periods indicated below, during and until the end of these periods, the power delivered by the module, measured at standard test conditions (3) shall not be less than the values ​​listed in the following table.

MINIMUM PERIOD VALUE (starting from the delivery of power to the first buyer) Delivery (4)

10 years 90%

20 YEARS 83%

25 years 80%

(3) radiation of 1000 W/m2, AM 1.5 spectral distribution (air mass) and 25 º C cell temperature. Measurements shall be made as provided in the Standard IEC60904, with a calibration of the measuring device according TSKAN calibration standard at the time of manufacture of the module. Power measurements are only valid if performed in the laboratory TSKAN or VDE, and not in external laboratories.

(3) In% of minimum power specified by TSKAN Module, at the time of purchase, in their technical and commercial catalogs.)

If at any time during the said period of validity of this guarantee, the Photovoltaic Module not meet the values ​​expressed power, agrees TSKAN, depending on the defect to submit, to repair or replace the / modules / s defective / s, or provide the / modules / extra s needed to offset the loss of power, or to return the amount received from the customer at the time of purchase for defective modules or others.

The above warranties are expressed in 1.a and 1.b which provides as a minimum TSKAN and universally applicable to all modules of its range TSKAN Brand Standard reserves the right to offer extensions thereof, adapted to the different characteristics of markets or countries. In that case, the extended warranty will be collected in a separate document.

The warranties contained in this Certificate shall be given by TSKAN, SL subject to the terms and conditions set forth below, warranties TSKAN

2) Exclusions and Limitations of Warranties

a) The warranty rights may be exercised during the period of validity set out in each case and immediately upon detection, except in the case of visible defects (paragraph 1.a.), in which case the claim must be made within limit of two months from the date of delivery to the first purchaser, or within three months from the date of delivery (Ex - Factory TSKAN), and prior to installation.

b) be exempt from the guarantee rights established herein, damage and malfunctions or service of the modules that have their origin in:

1) Accidents or negligent use, improper or inadequate.

2) Failure to follow instructions for installation, use and maintenance established in the corresponding TSKAN Manual (Annex II).

3) Modifications, installations or misuse, or not performed by personnel authorized by the After Sales Service TSKAN.

4) Damage caused by power surges, lightning, floods, plagues, earthquakes, extraordinary weather conditions, actions of third parties or any other reasons beyond the normal operation of the modules and are beyond the control of TSKAN.

c) be exempt from duty likewise guarantee the number of modules which
series that have been manipulated or not identifiable in a
unequivocally.

d) Not be covered by the warranty this broken glass modules because all modules are TSKAN mark approved according to international standard IEC 61215.

e) not be considered as defects are entitled to warranty claim, the aesthetic aspects of the module, unless they pose a decline in performance or the performance levels specified in the technical or commercial brochures TSKAN.

f) The guarantee rights established herein do not cover the costs of transporting the defective modules, of returning to TSKAN and subsequent return to the client. No cover, also, derived intervention costs of removal of defective modules, nor the subsequent reinstallation of the replacement modules, except in the case of modules purchased for use in the territory of the European Union, in which case Compliance shall the provisions of Law 23/2003 of July 10, which transposes the European Directive 1999/44/EC Spanish.

g) Modules that may be provided as additional to compensate for power losses, according to 1.b) does not involve any renovation or extension of the period of the guarantee set forth herein.

h) TSKAN reserves the right to supply a module different model to meet warranty claims accepted for replacement or extension, if the original model had been discontinued. All modules will become the property of TSKAN.

3) Claim Guarantee Rights

Any client or user (4) Mark TSKAN Photovoltaic Module, which is rightly considered justified to claim the guarantee rights established herein, shall proceed as follows:

(4) In the case of Guaranteed Power (1b), the relevant rights may be exercised only by the first purchaser of the modules that were purchased for own use, or who holds the legal ownership of the facility which original modules were located claimed. No claim will be valid for data or measures taken outside the laboratory of TSKAN.

a) Report immediately in writing:

1) A company that sold you the Modules,

2) Failing that, the authorized distributor in the area TSKAN (5),

3) In his absence, the Customer Service of TSKAN ( postventa@tskan.com )

(5) Refer http://www.tskan..com

For this, use the Claim Sheet Template (5), which must be accompanied by a copy of proof of purchase of the Modules subject to claim, bearing the date of acquisition.

b) Upon receipt of such claim TSKAN, the After Sales Service Department will proceed to its analysis, decide their origin or not, justified under the provisions of this limited warranty document, and informing the customer and the instructions to to follow.

c) The return of the module of claim may not be made without the prior written permission of the Department of Post Sale Service TSKAN.

Manufacturer Guarantee Certificate for Photovoltaic Modules Brand TSKAN

d) If a request for reasons of urgency, this request TSKAN the immediate replacement of the Modules subject to claim, were available prior to the resolution of the claim by the After Sales Service Department, it shall be accompanied by a Purchase Order to Commercial Department.

Having settled the claim by the After Sales Service Department, this Purchase Order would be subject to cancellation by issuing a credit note, if the resolution of the claim is relevant.

4) Limitations of liability

a) TSKAN, SA shall not be liable to the customer, directly or indirectly, for any failure or delay in the implementation of its warranty obligations, which could be caused by force majeure or other unforeseen incident beyond the control of TSKAN.

b) The liability arising under this Certificate TSKAN Guarantee is limited to the obligations set out above and, quantitatively, the amount of the invoice paid by the customer for purchasing module of claim, are expressly excluded from any liability for consequential damages such as loss of data in computer applications, the loss of revenues or profits of production, service interruptions, etc.., which do not contravene the laws applicable in each country with respect to product liability.

c) TSKAN only be responsible for the lack of conformity of the module with the requirements set forth in this Warranty, the result of incorrect installation, if installation is included in the contract of sale and has been performed by or under the responsibility TSKAN or by the consumer when the incorrect installation is due to an error in the installation instructions.

d) The stated limitations of guarantee shall apply provided that they do not contravene the laws applicable in each country with respect to product liability. If such cancellation of any of the above provisions, nullity will only affect that particular clause, keeping all other applicable provisions.

In particular, any application except as reflected in this warranty provisions that contravene the provisions of Law 23/2003 of July 10, which transposes the European Directive 1999/44/EC Spanish and it affects those Modules purchased for be used in the European Union territory.

Manufacturer Guarantee Certificate for Photovoltaic Modules TSKAN brand.

e) Excludes any other Guarantee right not expressly mentioned in this certificate.

5) Entry into force, applications ng and validity of the Certificate

This Warranty Certificate is effective from the date of its ^1st edition (June 2007) and shall apply to all TSKAN Photovoltaic Modules Brand, Standard Range, made ​​from that date remain valid until the editing changes, the which will be communicated in writing in advance.

Energy sources and their effects

Energy sources and their effects on the Environment

Today, nuclear energy, energy from fossil fuels, energy from biomass (mainly direct combustion of wood) and hydraulic energy, global energy demand met by a percentage greater than 98%, with oil and coal the most widely used (see chart).

The use of these natural resources involves, apart from his close and progressive exhaustion, a steady deterioration in the environment, manifested in emissions of CO2, NOx, and SOx, a worsening of the greenhouse effect, radioactive contamination and its potential incalculable, a progressive increase of desertification and erosion and modification of the major global ecosystems and the consequent loss of biodiversity and indigenous peoples, forced migration and the generation of isolated population centers tending to disappear.

These attacks are accompanied by great works of considerable environmental impact (difficult to quantify) such as hydro, water overheating coasts and rivers generated by nuclear power plants, creating deposits of radioactive elements, and a large emission of small particles volatiles that cause acid rain, further aggravating the situation of the environment: natural areas defoliated, cities with high pollution levels, health conditions in humans and animals, extinction of plant and animal species that can not continue the acceleration of the new requirement of adaptation.

The future threat to our environment is further complicated if one considers that only 25% of the population consumes

75% of energy production. This data, as well as highlight the injustice and social imbalance existing in the world, indicates a potential for being acquired by exporting tired and failed model of developed countries to developing countries.

The model is a paradigm in which energy production is based on a worldview in which man is the master of nature and the environment, rather than being an integrated part of it, and in which consumption expressed as a degree of comfort.

Energy

The need for energy is a statement from the beginning of life itself. A body needs to grow and reproduce energy, the movement of any animal is an energy expenditure, and even the very act of respiration of plants and animals involves energetic action. In all matters relating to individual or social life energy is present. The collection of light and heat is related to the production and consumption of energy. Both terms are essential for the survival of the earth and as a result of plant life, animal and human.

The human being from their first steps on earth, and throughout history, has been a seeker of ways to generate the necessary energy and facilitating a more enjoyable life. Thanks to the use and knowledge of the forms of energy has been able to cover basic needs: light, heat, motion, strength, and achieve greater levels of comfort to make life more comfortable and healthy.

information Lapurriketa Environmental Resource Center

And energy consumption

The need for increased production of industrial societies has been a steady increase in consumer goods and the creation of a mechanism which establishes an equivalence between comfort and consumption. This has led in recent decades an avid consumer, where consumption is an end in itself. The accumulation of assets, useful or not, waste as a sign of purchasing power and social distinction, requiring expenditure of perishable items, are consequences of the support mechanism that the economic system in developed societies has been established to maintain the productive capacity growing behind it.

Thus, energy demand has not only had to grow in the industry, but also consumers of manufactured products, mainly because these require energy to fulfill its purpose. To meet this demand not only goods, but demand for new levels of comfort, there is a need for more generation and energy supply. Thus, it has become necessary to provide large generators of surplus energy, in the event of power to meet demand that may be required.

The welfare state has created a "state spending and energy dependence." No wonder then, that one of the most important parameters to classify the degree of development of a country, whether energy expenditure per capita.

In this situation, renewable energies take on a role, both necessary and urgent in its application and the dissemination of its use.

Source: Environmental Resource Center Lapurriketa

Renewable Energy

Energy availability of renewable energy sources is higher than conventional energy sources, but its use is rather limited.
The development of technology, increasing social demand for clean energy use, lower costs of installation and quick return, and control can be performed on production facilities utilities are pushing for a greater use of sources of energy from renewable sources in recent years.

Similarly, the question of sustainable development model and its shift towards a model of sustainable development implies a new conception of the production, transport and energy consumption.

In this model of sustainable development, renewable energies are considered inexhaustible energy sources, but they have the clean energy peculiariedad be defined by the following characteristics: their energy use systems are a low or no environmental impact Its use has not added potential risks, indirectly imply an enrichment of natural resources, the proximity of energy production centers to places of consumption may be feasible in many of them, and are an alternative to conventional energy sources, may generate a gradual process of replacing them.

Wind energy

The wind energy potential is estimated at twenty times the hydraulic energy. It is becoming increasingly concrete implementation through the farm-use zone and optimization in the use of new materials in the machines: wind turbines.

From stand-alone applications for water pumping, to the production of multi-MW wind farms. The environmental impact of wind farms is much lower than any conventional power producing plants, and aggression to the environment lies in the incidence of accidents of birds and the impact of large parks, issues can be minimized by properly studying location and distribution system. The location of the installation of wind energy use, wind speed and range constant will determine its productive capacity and autonomy.

The development of technology, increasing social demand for clean energy use, lower costs of installation and quick return, and control can be performed on production facilities utilities are pushing for a greater use of sources of energy from renewable sources in recent years.

Similarly, the question of sustainable development model and its shift towards a model of sustainable development implies a new conception of the production, transport and energy consumption.

In this model of sustainable development, renewable energies are considered inexhaustible energy sources, but they have the clean energy peculiariedad be defined by the following characteristics: their energy use systems are a low or no environmental impact Its use has not added potential risks, indirectly imply an enrichment of natural resources, the proximity of energy production centers to places of consumption may be feasible in many of them, and are an alternative to conventional energy sources, may generate a gradual process of replacing them.

Geothermal energy

The energy from the ground heat flux is likely to be exploited in the form of mechanical and electrical energy. It is an exhaustible energy source, although the volume of storage and extraction capacity can be assessed as renewable. Their environmental impact is reduced, and its applicability is based on the relationship between ease of removal and location.

The Hydro

It is estimated that the potential energy of water of all the earth is equivalent to 500 plants of 1000 MW each. In order to minimize environmental impact and promote the proximity of production sites to consumption, is being enhanced through greater use mini energy riverbeds and a gradual replacement of macrocentrales hydropower and environmental problems arising demographic. With respect to the energy available in the sea, is counting on major new projects for the use of both energy and tidal energy in the waves simultaneously taking advantage of the tides so that water turbine can be operated in the flow of ascension and fall of sea power as heat transfer, which consists in exploiting the temperature difference between surface and deep currents, which can reach up to twenty five degrees Celsius and is usable 24 hours a day.

The biomass energy

Is the energy contained in organic matter and has various forms of exploitation, depending on whether the matter of animal or vegetable. Only vegetable matter, it is estimated that annually produce two hundred million tons. The primary energy use of biomass is wood burning, which generates air pollution and a problem of desertification and erosion indirectly, unless done correctly forest planning. Organic wastes are also used mainly by chemical transformations, the most known applications of anaerobic digesters for organic detritus and the production of biogas from municipal solid waste. However, the increasing technological innovation of materials and equipment is establishing new systems of exploitation of farmers and forest residues, and consolidates a hopeful future in the line of biofuels, so that it can be compatible with sustainable agriculture production design energy that respects the environment.

Solar energy

It is the largest source of energy available. The sun provides a power of 1.34 kW / m² in the upper atmosphere. 25% of this radiation does not go directly to the ground due to the presence of clouds, dust, mist and fumes in the air. However, having appropriate energy sensors and only 4% of the surface of the planet desert capturing that energy could satisfy world energy demand, assuming a yield of those 1%. As comparative data with other major energy source, only three days of sun on earth provide as much energy as it can cause burning of existing forests and fossil fuels caused by plant photosynthesis (coal, peat and oil). The most important problem of solar energy systems is to have efficient utilization (uptake or transformation).

Three are the most developed systems of solar energy use:

1 .- The heating of water utility to provide heat and cooling, using flat plate collectors and evacuated tube mainly.
2 .- The production of electricity, using the photovoltaic effect. Since some materials have the quality of being excited at a photon lighting and create electricity (photovoltaic effect), a way to harness the radiation is to install photovoltaic cells and panels that provide electricity.
3 .- The use of solar energy in the building, also called "bioclimatic building," is to design the building taking advantage of the climatic characteristics of the area where you will locate and use materials that provide maximum performance to the radiation received, with In order to achieve set levels of thermal comfort for habitability.

International Conventions and Treaties

National and international agencies produce energy reports and recommendations on the general problem of energy. Similarly, the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development makes contributions on the plans and objectives to be met to try to mitigate environmental degradation and change and the use of conventional energy sources that cause it. The guidelines that govern the design coming years energy strategy are conditioned by tacit agreements reached, where the future of energy production is based on the nuclear fusion remains unknown, and the development model advocated by the energy-linked welfare growth.

This description largely drowned every possible option to provide a comprehensive solution to the problem of energy, and real nullifies any agreement and declaration of intent by the government.

However, the 1994 Madrid Declaration makes a commitment to execution and performance of an action plan for renewable energy sources in Europe, supported by DG XII, XIII and XVII of the European Commission. The fruits of it are actions included in the continuity and development of energy programs (Thermie, Altener Securities) and support for initiatives such as the World Solar Summit sponsored by Unesco, which show that there is a statement of intent accompanied effective action, aimed at making viable between 2010 and 2015, 15% of primary energy consumption in Europe is conventional renewable sources and that this serves as ideas for the promotion of new initiatives to achieve sustainable sustainably.

Positive action

• Limit pollution, exerting greater control over emissions of pollutants from energy production facilities and reducing the use of fossil fuels. • Promote energy conservation through awareness, changing consumption patterns, research and manufacture of equipment requiring higher energy efficiency and low consumption.
• Diversify energy sources with the gradual replacement of conventional energy sources sources of energy from renewable sources and your own combination.
• Investigate new ways of harvesting and energy storage through the promotion of R & D plans, and support for pilot experiences subsequent application.
• Acercar los centros de producción a los lugares de consumo mediante el aprovechamiento del potencial energético de las energías de origen renovable, aumentando los centros de producción y tendiendo a dejar de operar con centros de gran capacidad productiva.
• Establish energy legislation by adopting national legislation, regional and supra giving effect to the recommendations and agreements on environment conservation and equality among peoples.
• Make plans by energy awareness campaigns on the problems generated by certain uses and forms of energy production, and development of educational plans showing the feasibility of using renewable energies, and the need for rational use of energy for sustainable development.